why do consumers producers and government have to make choices ?

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Why do consumers producers and governments have to make choices …
Why do consumers producers and governments have to make choices? – Answers Because these economic actors exist in a condition of scarcity, which means that they must make…

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Why Do Consumers Have to Make Choices: The Psychology of Decision …
There are a few reasons why consumer choice is so important. First, it gives consumers power. They can choose the products and services that they want to buy. This encourages companies to make better products and services because they know that consumers will switch to another company if they don’t. Second, consumer choice allows for competition.

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Why do consumer producer and government have to make choice?
See answer (1) Best Answer. Copy. Because every economy have limited resources and unlimited wants. So to satisfy their wants they have to make choices. Wiki User. ∙ 2010-08-06 07:39:35.

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Why do individuals businesses and governments have to make choices …
Governments also make trade-offs when they decide to spend their money on military needs instead of domestic ones, and vice versa. In most trade-offs, one of the rejected alternatives is more desirable that the rest. Why do we have to make choices in our economy? Why does an economic choice involve giving up something else? People make choices …

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Why do consumers need to make a choice? – Quora
Answer (1 of 3): Because of scarcity.. If they have enough money to spend then they don’t need to make choices. But the fact is every normal consumer has a limited amount of money to spend so they have to make choices so that they may get maximum satisfaction out of a limited money….

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The Importance of Consumer Choice in Economics
Producers exhaust many resources to understand consumer choice because economics depends on the consumer to work. Explore the importance of consumer choice, typical assumptions about the…

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Different Economic Groups – Economics Help
They employ factors of production – labour and capital. Labour are the people working in a company. Capital is machines and factories that are also part of the production process. 3. Government Governments regulate the economy. This includes Taxing consumers (income tax, VAT) Spend money on public infrastructure.

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How do consumers influence producers? – TeachersCollegesj
Why do producers and consumers have to make choices? This problem is called scarcity, Scarcity necessitates choice. If we cannot have everything we would like, we must choose those things we want most. Thus, both consumers and producers10 must continuously make choices about how to use the scarce productive resources available to them to satisfy their wants.

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Consumer Choice – Introduction to Microeconomics – Unizin
5 Consumer Choice 5.1 Consumption choices Total Utility and Diminishing Marginal Utility To understand how a household will make its choices, economists look at what consumers can afford, as shown in a budget constraint (or budget line), and the total utility or satisfaction derived from those choices.

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Economics Chapter 1 Flashcards | Quizlet
Scarcity affects producers because they have to make a choice on how to best use their limited resources. It affects consumers because they have to make a choice on what services or goods to choose. Explain how productivity affects economic growth. Increases in productivity allow firms to produce greater output for the same level of input.

A subsidy or government incentive is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector (business, or individual) generally with the aim of promoting economic and social policy.[1] Although commonly extended from the government, the term subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from NGOs or as implicit subsidies. Subsidies come in various forms including: direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect (tax breaks, insurance, low-interest loans, accelerated depreciation, rent rebates).[2][3]
Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical. The most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying market price support, direct support, or payments to factors of production.[3] Consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water.[1]
Contents
1 Types
1.1 Production subsidy
1.2 Consumer/consumption subsidy
1.3 Export subsidy
1.4 Import subsidy
1.5 Employment subsidy
1.6 Tax subsidy
1.7 Transport subsidies
1.8 Energy subsidies
1.8.1 Fossil fuels
1.9 Housing subsidies
1.10 Environmental externalities
2 Categorising subsidies
2.1 Broad and narrow
3 Economic effects
4 Preventing fraud
5 Perverse subsidies
5.1 Definitions
5.2 Effects
5.3 Implementation
5.4 Examples
5.4.1 Agricultural subsidies
5.4.2 Fisheries
5.4.3 Manufacturing subsidies
5.4.4 Others
6 Short list of subsidies
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Types[edit]
Production subsidy[edit]
A production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses.[4] The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a particular product more so that the market would promote but without raising the final price to consumers. This type of subsidy is predominantly found in developed markets.[3] Other examples of production subsidies include the assistance in the creation of a new firm (Enterprise Investment Scheme), industry (industrial policy) and even the development of certain areas (regional policy). Production subsidies are critically discussed in the literature as they can cause many problems including the additional cost of storing the extra produced products, depressing world market prices, and incentivizing producers to over-produce, for example, a farmer overproducing in terms of his land’s carrying capacity..
Consumer/consumption subsidy[edit]
A consumption subsidy is one that subsidizes the behavior of consumers. This type of subsidies are most common in developing countries where governments subsidise such things as food, water, electricity and education on the basis that no matter how impoverished, all should be allowed those most basic requirements.[3] For example, some governments offer ‘lifeline’ rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidized.[3] Evidence from recent studies suggests that government expenditures on subsidies remain high in many countries, often amounting to several percentage points of GDP. Subsidization on such a scale implies substantial opportunity costs. There are at least three compelling reasons for studying government subsidy behavior. First, subsidies are a major instrument of government expenditure policy. Second, on a domestic level, subsidies affect domestic resource allocation decisions, income distribution, and expenditure productivity. A consumer subsidy is a shift in demand as the subsidy is given directly to consumers.
Export subsidy[edit]
An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, as a means of assisting the country’s balance of payments.[4] Usha Haley and George Haley identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese government and how they have altered trade patterns.[2] Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries. Haley and Haley provided data to show that over the decade after China joined the World Trade Organization industrial subsidies have helped give China an advantage in industries in which they previously enjoyed no comparative advantage such as the steel, glass, paper, auto parts, and solar industries.[2] China’s shores have also collapsed from overfishing and industrialization, which is why the Chinese government heavily subsidizes its fishermen, who sail the world in search of new grounds.[5]
Export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to benefit more from the export subsidy. Another method is to export a batch of goods to a foreign country but the same goods will be re-imported by the same trader via a circuitous route and changing the product description so as to obscure their origin. Thus the trader benefits from the export subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy.
Adam Smith observed that special government subsidies enabled exporters to sell abroad at substantial ongoing losses. He did not regard that as a sound and sustainable policy. That was because “… under normal industrial-commercial conditions their own interests soon oblige loss-making businesses to deploy their capital in other ways – or to move into markets where the sales prices do cover the supply costs and yield ordinary profits. Like other mercantilist schemes and devices, export bounties are a means of trying to force business capital into channels it would not naturally enter. The schemes are invariably costly and damaging in various ways.”[6]
Import subsidy[edit]
An import subsidy is support from the government for products that are imported. Rarer than an export subsidy, an import subsidy further reduces the price to consumers for imported goods. Import subsidies have various effects depending on the subject. For example, consumers in the importing country are better off and experience an increase in consumer welfare due to the decrease in price of the imported goods, as well as the decrease in price of the domestic substitute goods. Conversely, the consumers in the exporting country experience a decrease in consumer welfare due to an increase in the price of their domestic goods. Furthermore, producers of the importing country experience a loss of welfare due to a decrease of the price for the good in their market, while on the other side, the exporters of the producing country experience an increase in well being due to the increase in demand. Ultimately, the import subsidy is rarely used due to an overall loss of welfare for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income.[7]
Employment subsidy[edit]
An employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country (income subsidies) or to encourage research and development.[4] With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages. Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits. Employment subsidies allow a person receiving the benefit to enjoy some minimum standard of living.
Tax subsidy[edit]
Governments can create the same outcome through selective tax breaks as through cash payments.[8] For example, if a government sends monetary assistance that reimburses 15% of all health expenditures to a group that is paying 15% income tax. Exactly the same subsidy is achieved by giving a health tax deduction. Tax subsidies are also known as tax expenditures.
Tax breaks are often considered to be a subsidy. Like other subsidies, they distort the economy; but tax breaks are also less transparent, and are difficult to undo.[9]
The Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting is a treaty signed by half the nations of the world and it is aimed to prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, a particular form of tax subsidy related to Intellectual Property.
Transport subsidies[edit]
Some governments subsidise transport, especially rail and bus transport, which decrease congestion and pollution compared to cars. In the EU, rail subsidies are around €73 billion, and Chinese subsidies reach $130 billion.[10][11]
Publicly-owned airports can be an indirect subsidy if they lose money. The European Union, for instance, criticizes Germany for its high number of money-losing airports that are used primarily by low cost carriers, characterizing the arrangement as an illegal subsidy.[citation needed]
In many countries, roads and highways are paid for through general revenue, rather than tolls or other dedicated sources that are paid only by road users, creating an indirect subsidy for road transportation. The fact that long-distance buses in Germany do not pay tolls has been called an indirect subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways.
Energy subsidies[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Energy subsidy.[edit]
Energy subsidies are measures that keep prices for customers below market levels, or for suppliers above market levels, or reduce costs for customers and suppliers.[12][13] Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to suppliers, customers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as tax exemptions and rebates, price controls, trade restrictions, and limits on market access.
The International Renewable Energy Agency tracked some $634 billion in energy-sector subsidies in 2020, and found that around 70% were fossil fuel subsidies. About 20% went to renewable power generation, 6% to biofuels and just over 3% to nuclear.[14]
Fossil fuels[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Fossil fuel subsidies.[edit]
Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in constant US dollars.
Fossil-fuel subsidies as a share of GDP, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies are given as a share of total gross domestic product.
Fossil fuel subsidies are energy subsidies on fossil fuels. They may be tax breaks on consumption, such as a lower sales tax on natural gas for residential heating; or subsidies on production, such as tax breaks on exploration for oil. Or they may be free or cheap negative externalities; such as air pollution or climate change due to burning gasoline, diesel and jet fuel. Some fossil fuel subsidies are via electricity generation, such as subsidies for coal-fired power stations. One downside to subsidizing any industry is that competition and innovation are lessened or lost completely. Subsidizing can make a product be cheaper for buyers, but in the long run, innovation and lower prices come from a competitive free market.
Despite the G20 countries having pledged to phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies,[15] they may be continued because of voter demand[16] or for energy security.[17] Global fossil fuel consumption subsidies in 2021 have been estimated at 440 billion dollars;[18] although they vary each year depending on oil prices they are consistently hundreds of billions of dollars.[19]
Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would greatly reduce global carbon emissions[20][21][22][23] and would reduce the health risks of air pollution.[24] As of 2021, policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful agricultural subsidies or environmentally harmful water subsidies.[25]
Housing subsidies[edit]
Housing subsidies are designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. The deduction of mortgage interest from the federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $10.9 million in 2008.[26]
Environmental externalities[edit]
See also: Climate change mitigation, Environmental economics, and Environmental protection
While conventional subsidies require financial support, many economists have described implicit subsidies in the form of untaxed environmental externalities.[1] These externalities include things such as pollution from vehicle emissions, pesticides, or other sources.
A 2015 report studied the implicit subsidies accruing to 20 fossil fuel companies. It estimated that the societal costs from downstream emissions and pollution attributable to these companies were substantial.[27][28] The report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: for all companies and all years, the economic cost to society of their CO2 emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception of ExxonMobil in 2008.[27]: 4  Pure coal companies fare even worse: the economic cost to society exceeds total revenue (employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect employment) in all years, with this cost varying between nearly $2 and nearly $9 per $1 of revenue.[27]: 4–5
Categorising subsidies[edit]
Broad and narrow[edit]
These various subsidies can be divided into broad and narrow. Narrow subsidies are those monetary transfers that are easily identifiable and have a clear intent. They are commonly characterised by a monetary transfer between governments and institutions or businesses and individuals. A classic example is a government payment to a farmer.[29]
Conversely broad subsidies include both monetary and non-monetary subsidies and is often difficult to identify.[29] A broad subsidy is less attributable and less transparent. Environmental externalities are the most common type of broad subsidy.
Economic effects[edit]
Competitive equilibrium is a state of balance between buyers and suppliers, in which the quantity demanded of a good is the quantity supplied at a specified price. When the price falls the quantity demand exceeds the equilibrium quantity, conversely, a reduction in the supply of a good beyond equilibrium quantity implies an increase in the price. The effect of a subsidy is to shift the supply or demand curve to the right (i.e. increases the supply or demand) by the amount of the subsidy. If a consumer is receiving the subsidy, a lower price of a good resulting from the marginal subsidy on consumption increases demand, shifting the demand curve to the right. If a supplier is receiving the subsidy, an increase in the price (revenue) resulting from the marginal subsidy on production results increases supply, shifting the supply curve to the right.
Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy.[30] The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered a market failure, or inefficiency.[30]
Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition.[31] As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries.[32] The problem with protectionism arises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (infant-industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.[33]
Subsidies create spillover effects in other economic sectors and industries. A subsidized product sold in the world market lowers the price of the good in other countries. Since subsidies result in lower revenues for producers of foreign countries, they are a source of tension between the United States, Europe and poorer developing countries.[34] While subsidies may provide immediate benefits to an industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others.[31] For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution.[31] Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in the future, as needs of sustainable development and environmental protection could suggest different interpretations regarding energy and renewable energy subsidies.[35] In its July 2019 report, Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now, the OECD suggests that countries make better use of environmental taxation, phase out agricultural subsidies and environmentally harmful tax breaks.[36][37]
Preventing fraud[edit]
In the Netherlands, audits are performed to verify whether the funds that have been received has indeed been spent legally (and all requirements of the subsidy provider have been attained), for the purpose intended.[38] It hence prevents fraud.
Perverse subsidies[edit]
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Definitions[edit]
Although subsidies can be important, many are perverse, in the sense of having adverse unintended consequences. To be perverse, subsidies must exert effects that are demonstrably and significantly adverse both economically and environmentally.[3] A subsidy rarely, if ever, starts perverse, but over time a legitimate efficacious subsidy can become perverse or illegitimate if it is not withdrawn after meeting its goal or as political goals change. Perverse subsidies are now so widespread that as of 2007 they amounted $2 trillion per year in the six most subsidised sectors alone (agriculture, fossil fuels, road transportation, water, fisheries and forestry).[39]
Effects[edit]
The detrimental effects of perverse subsidies are diverse in nature and reach. Case-studies from differing sectors are highlighted below but can be summarised as follows.
Directly, they are expensive to governments by directing resources away from other legitimate should priorities (such as environmental conservation, education, health, or infrastructure),[8][29][40][41] ultimately reducing the fiscal health of the government.[42]
Indirectly, they cause environmental degradation (exploitation of resources, pollution, loss of landscape, misuse and overuse of supplies) which, as well as its fundamental damage, acts as a further brake on economies; tend to benefit the few at the expense of the many, and the rich at the expense of the poor; lead to further polarization of development between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; lower global market prices; and undermine investment decisions reducing the pressure on businesses to become more efficient.[1][41][43] Over time the latter effect means support becomes enshrined in human behaviour and business decisions to the point where people become reliant on, even addicted to, subsidies, ‘locking’ them into society.[44]
Consumer attitudes do not change and become out-of-date, off-target and inefficient;[1] furthermore, over time people feel a sense of historical right to them.[43]
Implementation[edit]
Perverse subsidies are not tackled as robustly as they should be. Principally, this is because they become ‘locked’ into society, causing bureaucratic roadblocks and institutional inertia.[45][46] When cuts are suggested many argue (most fervently by those ‘entitled’, special interest groups and political lobbyists) that it will disrupt and harm the lives of people who receive them, distort domestic competitiveness curbing trade opportunities, and increase unemployment.[43][47] Individual governments recognise this as a ‘prisoner’s dilemma’ – insofar as that even if they wanted to adopt subsidy reform, by acting unilaterally they fear only negative effects will ensue if others do not follow.[44] Furthermore, cutting subsidies, however perverse they may be, is considered a vote-losing policy.[45]
Reform of perverse subsidies is at a propitious time. The current economic conditions mean governments are forced into fiscal constraints and are looking for ways to reduce activist roles in their economies.[46] There are two main reform paths: unilateral and multilateral. Unilateral agreements (one country) are less likely to be undertaken for the reasons outlined above, although New Zealand,[48] Russia, Bangladesh and others represent successful examples.[1] Multilateral actions by several countries are more likely to succeed as this reduces competitiveness concerns, but are more complex to implement requiring greater international collaboration through a body such as the WTO.[41] Irrespective of the path, the aim of policymakers should be to: create alternative policies that target the same issue as the original subsidies but better; develop subsidy removal strategies allowing market-discipline to return; introduce ‘sunset’ provisions that require remaining subsidies to be re-justified periodically; and make perverse subsidies more transparent to taxpayers to alleviate the ‘vote-loser’ concern.[1]
Examples[edit]
Agricultural subsidies[edit]
Support for agriculture dates back to the 19th century. It was developed extensively in the EU and USA across the two World Wars and the Great Depression to protect domestic food production, but remains important across the world today.[41][45] In 2005, US farmers received $14 billion and EU farmers $47 billion in agricultural subsidies.[31] Today, agricultural subsidies are defended on the grounds of helping farmers to maintain their livelihoods. The majority of payments are based on outputs and inputs and thus favour the larger producing agribusinesses over the small-scale farmers.[3][49] In the USA nearly 30% of payments go to the top 2% of farmers.[41][50][51]
By subsidising inputs and outputs through such schemes as ‘yield based subsidisation’, farmers are encouraged to over-produce using intensive methods, including using more fertilizers and pesticides; grow high-yielding monocultures; reduce crop rotation; shorten fallow periods; and promote exploitative land use change from forests, rainforests and wetlands to agricultural land.[41] These all lead to severe environmental degradation, including adverse effects on soil quality and productivity including erosion, nutrient supply and salinity which in turn affects carbon storage and cycling, water retention and drought resistance; water quality including pollution, nutrient deposition and eutrophication of waterways, and lowering of water tables; diversity of flora and fauna including indigenous species both directly and indirectly through the destruction of habitats, resulting in a genetic wipe-out.[3][41][52][53]
Cotton growers in the US reportedly receive half their income from the government under the Farm Bill of 2002. The subsidy payments stimulated overproduction and resulted in a record cotton harvest in 2002, much of which had to be sold at very reduced prices in the global market.[31] For foreign producers, the depressed cotton price lowered their prices far below the break-even price. In fact, African farmers received 35 to 40 cents per pound for cotton, while US cotton growers, backed by government agricultural payments, received 75 cents per pound. Developing countries and trade organizations argue that poorer countries should be able to export their principal commodities to survive, but protectionist laws and payments in the United States and Europe prevent these countries from engaging in international trade opportunities.
Fisheries[edit]
Today, much of the world’s major fisheries are overexploited; in 2002, the WWF estimate this at approximately 75%. Fishing subsidies include direct assistant to fishers; loan support programs; tax preferences and insurance support; capital and infrastructure programs; marketing and price support programs; and fisheries management, research, and conservation programs.[54] They promote the expansion of fishing fleets, the supply of larger and longer nets, larger yields and indiscriminate catch, as well as mitigating risks which encourages further investment into large-scale operations to the disfavour of the already struggling small-scale industry.[41][55] Collectively, these result in the continued overcapitalization and overfishing of marine fisheries.
There are four categories of fisheries subsidies. First are direct financial transfers, second are indirect financial transfers and services. Third, certain forms of intervention and fourth, not intervening. The first category regards direct payments from the government received by the fisheries industry. These typically affect profits of the industry in the short term and can be negative or positive. Category two pertains to government intervention, not involving those under the first category. These subsidies also affect the profits in the short term but typically are not negative. Category three includes intervention that results in a negative short-term economic impact, but economic benefits in the long term. These benefits are usually more general societal benefits such as the environment. The final category pertains to inaction by the government, allowing producers to impose certain production costs on others. These subsidies tend to lead to positive benefits in the short term but negative in the long term.[56]
Manufacturing subsidies[edit]
A survey of manufacturing in Britain found government subsidies had had various unintended dysfunctional consequences. The subsidies had usually been selective or discriminatory – benefiting some companies at the expense of others. Government money in the form of grants and awards of production and R&D contracts had gone to advanced and viable firms as well as old uneconomic enterprises. However, the main recipients had been larger, established companies – while most of the firms pioneering radical technical-product developments with long-term economic growth potential had been new small enterprises. The study concluded that instead of providing subsidies, governments wanting to benefit industrial-technological development and performance should lower standard rates of business taxation, raise tax allowances for investments in new plant, equipment and products, and remove obstacles to market competition and customer choice.[57]
Others[edit]
The US National Football League’s (NFL) profits have topped records at $11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.[58][59]
The Commitment to Development Index (CDI), published by the Center for Global Development, measures the effect that subsidies and trade barriers actually have on the undeveloped world. It uses trade, along with six other components such as aid or investment, to rank and evaluate developed countries on policies that affect the undeveloped world. It finds that the richest countries spend $106 billion per year subsidizing their own farmers – almost exactly as much as they spend on foreign aid.[60]
Short list of subsidies[edit]
Agricultural subsidy
Fisheries subsidy
Export subsidy
Energy subsidy
Fossil fuel subsidies (oil subsidies, coal subsidies, gas subsidies)
Photovoltaics subsidy
Party subsidies
Wage subsidy
Artist subsidy (Netherlands)
See also[edit]
Agricultural subsidy
Cross subsidization
Cultural subsidy
Energy subsidy
Subsidization of company cars
Federal government
Audit software in governmental procurement
Municipal services
Perverse incentive
Rail subsidies
Stadium subsidy
Tax exemption
Wage subsidy
References[edit]
^
a b c d e f g Myers, N. (1998). Lifting the veil on perverse subsidies. Nature. 392 (6674): 327–328. Bibcode:1998Natur.392..327M. doi:10.1038/32761. S2CID 4426064.
^
a b c Haley, U.; G. Haley (2013). Subsidies to Chinese Industry. The Economist. London: Oxford University Press.
^
a b c d e f g h Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001). Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy. Washington, DC: Island Press. ISBN 978-1-55963-835-7.
^
a b c Collins Dictionary of Economics. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
^ Urbina, Ian (11 August 2020). The deadly secret of China’s invisible armada. NBC News.
^ Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations: A Translation into Modern English. ISR/Google Books, 2019, page 300. ISBN 9780906321706
^ Suranovic, Steven. Welfare Effects of a VIE/Import Subsidy: Large Country. International Trade Theory and Policy. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^
a b Is That a Good State/Local Economic Development Deal? A Checklist (2014-06-03), Naked Capitalism
^ Chapter 3: Subsidy types. Global Subsidies Initiative. IISD. d from the original on 2012-09-05. Retrieved 2015-05-03.
^ EU Technical Report 2007.
^ China to Invest $128 Billion in Rail, Push for Global Share. Bloomberg News. 5 March 2015.
^ Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021). Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill. Nature. Retrieved 26 October 2021. Fossil-fuel subsidies generally take two forms. Production subsidies…[and]…Consumption subsidies…
^ OECD, 1998
^ Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021). Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill. Nature. Retrieved 26 October 2021.
^ Update on recent progress in reform of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption (PDF). 2021.
^ George, Johannes Urpelainen and Elisha (2021-07-14). Reforming global fossil fuel subsidies: How the United States can restart international cooperation. Brookings. Retrieved 2022-02-26.
^ Brower, Derek; Wilson, Tom; Giles, Chris (2022-02-25). The new energy shock: Putin, Ukraine and the global economy. Financial Times. Retrieved 2022-02-26.
^ Energy subsidies. International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2022-02-26.
^ Fossil Fuel Subsidies & Finance. Oil Change International. Retrieved 2022-06-02.
^ Coady, David; Parry, Ian; Sears, Louis; Shang, Baoping (March 2017). How Large Are Global Fossil Fuel Subsidies?. World Development. 91: 11–27. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.10.004.
^ John Schwartz (5 December 2015). On Tether to Fossil Fuels, Nations Speak With Money. The New York Times. d from the original on 6 December 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015. …the elimination of subsidies as one of the most effective strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
^ Ross, Michael L.; Hazlett, Chad; Mahdavi, Paasha (January 2017). Global progress and backsliding on gasoline taxes and subsidies. Nature Energy. 2 (1): 16201. Bibcode:2017NatEn…216201R. doi:10.1038/nenergy.2016.201. S2CID 157840070.
^ Fossil fuel subsidies: If we want to reduce greenhouse gas emissions we should not pay people to burn fossil-fuels. Our World in Data. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
^ Local Environmental Externalities due to Energy Price Subsidies: A Focus on Air Pollution and Health (PDF). World Bank.
^ Protecting Nature by Reforming Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: The Role of Business | Earth Track. www.earthtrack.net. Retrieved 2022-03-07.
^ Amadeo, Kimberly. Government Subsidies (Farm, Oil, Export, etc.). The Balance. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^
a b c Hope, Chris; Gilding, Paul; Alvarez, Jimena (2015). Quantifying the implicit climate subsidy received by leading fossil fuel companies — Working Paper No. 02/2015 (PDF). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge. d from the original (PDF) on 28 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
^ Measuring fossil fuel ‘hidden’ costs. University of Cambridge Judge Business School. 23 July 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
^
a b c Myers, N. (2008). Perverse Priorities (PDF). IUCN Opinion Piece: 6–7.
^
a b Watkins, Thayer. The Impact of an Excise Tax or Subsidy on Price. San José State University Department of Economics. Retrieved 2016-06-28.
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a b c d e Kolb, R.W. (2008). Subsidies. Encyclopedia of business ethics and society. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. ISBN 9781412916523.
^ Protectionism. (2006). Collins Dictionary
^ Amegashie, J. A. (2006). The Economics of Subsidies. Crossroads , 6 (2), 7-15.
^ Parkin, M.; Powell, M.; Matthews, K. (2007). Economics (7th ed.). Harlow: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0132041225.
^ Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (2015). World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (GIELR). 27 (1). SSRN 2704398. and Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (15 December 2015). WTO and Renewable Energy: Lessons from the Case Law. 49 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE 6, Kluwer Law International. SSRN 2704453.
^ Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now – OECD. www.oecd.org. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
^ Uncertain global economy should prompt governments to embark on reforms that boost sustainable growth, raise incomes and increase opportunities for all – OECD. www.oecd.org. Retrieved 2019-10-01.
^ Audit of the subsidy statements
^ Myers, N. (1997). Perverse subsidies. In Costanza, R.; Norgaard, R.; Daly, H.; Goodland, R.; Cumberland, J. (eds.). An introduction to ecological economics. Boca Raton, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 978-1884015724. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ James, A.N.; Gaston, K.J.; Balmford, A. (1999). Balancing the Earth’s accounts. Nature. 401 (6751): 323–324. Bibcode:1999Natur.401..323J. doi:10.1038/43774. PMID 16862091. S2CID 4410695.
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a b c d e f g h Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003). Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms (PDF). Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. d from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-03.
^ McDonald, B.D.; Decker, J.W.; Johnson, B.A.M. (2020). You don’t always get what you want: The effect of financial incentives on state fiscal health. Public Administration Review. 81 (3): 365–374. doi:10.1111/puar.13163.
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a b c van Beers, Cees; van den Bergh, Jeroen CJM (2009). Environmental Harm of Hidden Subsidies: Global Warming and Acidification (PDF). Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 38 (6): 339–341. doi:10.1579/08-A-616.1. PMID 19860158.
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a b van Beers, C.; de Moor, A. (1998). Perverse subsidies, international trade and the environment. Planejamento e Políticas Públicas. 18: 49–69.
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a b c Myers, N. (1996). Perverse Subsidies (PDF). Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity: 268–278.
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a b Myers, N. (1998). Consumption and sustainable development: the role of perverse subsidies (PDF). Background Paper for the 1998 Human Development Report: 1–31.
^ Bellmann, C.; Hepburn, J.; Sugathan, M.; Monkelbaan, J. (2012). Tackling Perverse Subsidies in Agriculture, Fisheries and Energy (PDF). International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development: Information Note June 2012.
^ Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001). Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy. Washington, DC: Island Press. pp. box 3.2. ISBN 978-1-55963-835-7.
^ Steenblik, R. (1998). Previous Multilateral Efforts to Discipline Subsidies to Natural Resource Based Industries (PDF). Workshop on the Impact of Government Financial Transfers on Fisheries Management, Resource Sustainability, and International Trade. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
^ How Farm Subsidies Harm Taxpayers, Consumers, and Farmers, Too
^ Who Benefits from Farm Subsidies?
^ Portugal, L. (2002). OECD Work on Defining and Measuring Subsidies in Agriculture. The OECD Workshop on Environmentally Harmful Subsidies, Paris, 7–8 November 2002.
^ OECD (2003). Perverse incentives in biodiversity loss (PDF). Working Party on Global and Structural Policies Working Group on Economic Aspects of Biodiversity. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
^ Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003). Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms (PDF). Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. p. 4. d from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-03.
^ Porter, G. (1998). Natural Resource Subsidies, Trade and Environment: The Cases of Forest and Fisheries (PDF). Center for Environmental Law. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
^ Report of the Expert Consultation on Identifying, Assessing and Reporting on Subsidies in the Fishing Industry – Rome, 3-6 December 2002. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ Manufacturing in Britain: A Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance, ISR/Google Books, 2019, pages 37-38. ISBN 9780906321614
^ Clegg, Jonathan (28 April 2015). NFL to End Tax-Exempt Status. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ Cohen, R. (2008). Playing by the NFL’s Tax Exempt Rulesh. NonProfit Quarterly. Retrieved 2013-04-15.
^ Fowler, P.; Fokker, R. (2004). A Sweeter Future? The potential for EU sugar reform to contribute to poverty reduction in Southern Africa. Oxford: Oxfam International. ISBN 9781848141940.
Further reading[edit]
Library resources about
Subsidy
Resources in your library
OECD (2001) Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges. France: OECD Productions. http://www.inecc.gob.mx/descargas/dgipea/harmful_subsidies.pdf
External links[edit]
Another Day, Another Bad Incentive Deal (2014-06-06), Naked Capitalism
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